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2023年7月 第38卷 第7期11
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细胞外囊泡来源异质性在乳腺癌转移中的机制及临床转化潜力

Research progress on heterogeneity of extracellular vesicle origins,metastatic mechanisms and clinical translational potential in breast cancer

来源期刊: 广州医药 | 798-810 发布时间:2026-07-20 收稿时间:2026/8/20 16:42:51 阅读量:12
作者:
关键词:
细胞外囊泡乳腺癌转移液体活检肿瘤微环境生物标志物
xtracellular vesiclesbreast cancermetastasisliquid biopsytumor microenvironmentbiomarker
DOI:
10. 20223 / j. cnki. 1000-8535. 2026. 07. 002
收稿时间:
2026-03-8 
修订日期:
 
接收日期:
 
引用总数:
0  
       乳腺癌(BC)发病率持续上升,已成为严重威胁公共健康的重大挑战,转移仍是导致患者死亡的主要原因。目前,切除肿瘤并辅以放化疗后仍有较大几率发生转移。此外,早期转移隐匿性强,干预措施不完善及耐药发生迅速均是预后不良的重要因素。细胞外囊泡(EVs)是由细胞释放的、具有膜结构的纳米级颗粒,是细胞间通讯的重要介质。EVs通过转运膜性组分、胞质蛋白及核酸等,调控乳腺癌的发生、进展及转移定植,其来源异质性决定了其在乳腺癌转移中发挥独特作用。本文重点总结了不同来源EVs作为液体活检标志物在转移预警中的价值,以及靶向EVs分泌或阻断其通讯网络在克服免疫治疗耐药中的潜在临床应用,以期为临床医生提供有价值的诊疗参考。
     The incidence of breast cancer(BC) continues to rise and has become a major public health challenge.Metastasis remains the principal cause of BC-related mortality.Currently,there remains a high probability of metastasis even after surgical tumor resection followed by radiotherapy and chemotherapy.The insidious nature of early metastasis,inadequate intervention strategies,and rapid development of drug resistance are all critical factors contributing to poor prognosis.Extracellular vesicles(EVs) are membrane-enclosed,nanoscale particles released by cells.As mediators of intercellular communication,EVs transfer membrane components,cytosolic proteins,and nucleic acids to recipient cells,thereby modulating BC initiation,progression,and metastatic dissemination.The heterogeneity of EV origins determines their distinct roles in breast cancer metastasis.This review focuses on summarizing the value of EVs from different sources as liquid biopsy biomarkers for metastasis warning,as well as their potential clinical applications in targeting EV secretion or blocking their communication networks to overcome immunotherapy resistance,aiming to provide valuable diagnostic and therapeutic references for clinicians.

       吕洋 医学博士,教授,硕士生导师,现任河北北方学院基础医学院病理学教研室主任及基础医学院教师第三党支部书记。担任中国研究型医院学会超微病理学专业委员会委员、河北省病理学会教学和教改学组委员、河北北方学院第四届学术委员会委员及《河北北方学院学报》(自然科学版与社会科学版)编委。主要致力于肿瘤的临床病理研究及干细胞向心肌细胞分化研究,主持河北省自然科学基金、河北省科技厅、张家口市科技局等科研项目多项,发表学术论文30余篇,作为第一完成人获张家口市科技进步奖一等奖1项。

       乳腺癌(breast cancer,BC)是世界范围内女性发病率最高的恶性肿瘤之一,转移的发生使患者病死率显著升高。转移的早期较难准确诊断,例如骨、脑膜、肺等,常表现为无症状、阳性率低。尤其在发生多发转移时,缺乏高灵敏度、高特异性的诊断标志物。即使转移病灶准确定位,但不同部位对药物的反应差异较大、全身症状难以控制、治疗后耐药不断发生等因素大大降低患者存活率。基于我国近年流行病学资料和专家共识报道,乳腺癌总体5年生存率已超过80%,早期乳腺癌经规范治疗后,5年生存率可达90%以上,而转移性乳腺癌5年生存率仍不足20%[1-3]。因此,有效预防乳腺癌的复发和转移对改善患者预后至关重要。近年来,细胞外囊泡(extracellular vesicles,EVs)在乳腺癌转移与复发领域取得重大进展,为解决以上问题提供了新思路。
       在稳态、低氧、炎症等应激条件下,EVs的释放量显著增加,其中细胞癌化是促使EVs产量升高的重要因素之一[4]。EVs所携带的生物活性物质既可锚定于其磷脂双层膜上,亦可封装于囊腔内,主要包含蛋白质、脂质及多种核酸分子,包括微核糖核酸(microRNA,miRNA)、环状RNA(circular RNA,circRNA)、长非编码RNA(long non-coding RNA,lncRNA)、信使核糖核酸(messenger RNA,mRNA)等,其成分谱仍在不断扩展;不同细胞来源的EVs在乳腺癌转移的发生、转运及器官特异性定植中发挥特异调控作用,由于EVs广泛存在于体液中且携带有源自母细胞的特异性分子指纹,其作为“液体活检”的核心介质,在肿瘤无创早期诊断领域展现出巨大潜力[5-6]。本文综述了肿瘤细胞、间质细胞及免疫细胞等多源EVs参与乳腺癌转移的分子机制,重点探讨将这些机制认识转化为临床靶向干预策略及动态监测工具的可行性与挑战。

1 细胞外囊泡的概述

       EVs广泛存在于各类细胞所处的微环境,包括多种亚型,如外泌体(exosomes,30~100 nm)、微囊泡(microvesicles,100~1 000 nm)、凋亡小体(apoptotic bodies,500~4 000 nm)和迁移体(migrasomes,500~3 000 nm)等[7]。此外,最新发现的起泡小体(blebbisomes,10~20 μm)在乳腺癌转移中显示出独特的生物学功能[8]。由于命名不统一,“外泌体”一词常被混用指代细胞外囊泡,易造成混淆。本文将统一采用“细胞外囊泡(EVs)”进行阐述。

1.1 细胞外囊泡的生物发生与释放

       外泌体(exosomes,Exos):Exos的发生始于早期内体(early sorting endosome,ESE)的形成,终于内腔小囊泡(intraluminal vesicles,ILVs)的出芽。首先,ESE经历膜结构重塑与“货载成分”分选,逐渐成熟为晚期内体(late sorting endosome,LSE),随后,LSE腔内出芽形成多个ILVs,这一整体结构被称为多囊泡体(multivesicular body,MVB)。之后,ILVs以Exos形式释放至胞外空间[9-10]。MVB的转运与膜融合常受SNARE复合体调控,并与细胞骨架动态紧密相关[11]。另外,Exos的分选与出芽涉及两种机制:内体分选转运复合体(endosomal sorting complex required for transport,ESCRT)依赖性途径和ESCRT非依赖性途径。在ESCRT非依赖性途径中,细胞膜上富集的四跨膜蛋白能够协同分选特定蛋白或脂质并组织ILVs装配[12]。中性鞘磷脂酶2在肿瘤情境下于质膜处产生神经酰胺,调控内体膜的出芽过程[13-14]。另外,蛋白拥挤导致的膜曲率变化可改变内体膜的物理性质,为实现偏置性装载与出芽提供物理基础[15]。实际分选往往由多条通路并行或接力完成,并受细胞状态影响,例如低氧、应激、致癌信号等。
       微囊泡(microvesicles,MVs):MVs的形成直接源自质膜向外出芽。1967年Wolf首次描述了来源于血小板的“微囊泡”样颗粒[16]。随着深入研究,人们发现胞内Ca2+升高是MVs形成的关键信号。细胞膜损伤、细胞死亡、高通透性通道等均可促进Ca2+内流,高浓度的Ca2+通过激活钙蛋白酶裂解膜联蛋白诱导膜磷脂非对称性改变,包括外翻、内翻和乱序,同时促使皮层细胞骨架解聚与重塑,上述过程最终释放携带特定货载成分的MVs[17]
       凋亡小体(apoptotic bodies):为细胞发生程序性死亡时,细胞膜泡化与细胞器或染色质分割所形成的较大囊泡,常携带细胞器与核酸片段。本综述聚焦可逆性细胞间通讯的外泌体与微囊泡,凋亡小体不再赘述。

1.2 细胞外囊泡介导的信息传递

       EVs可经自分泌与旁分泌调控局部微环境,并在进入血液、淋巴或组织液后,实现远距传递,抵达特定器官甚至全身。靶细胞常见的摄取方式为多类型内吞,包括网格蛋白依赖性内吞、小窝蛋白介导内吞以及脂筏介导内化等。EVs被内吞后经历内体-溶酶体途径并降解,或发生内体逃逸进入胞质从而产生功能效应。此外,EVs在一定pH与脂质环境下可与受体细胞直接膜融合,将生物活性物质释放至胞内[10]。靶细胞摄取效率与靶向性高度依赖受体-配体的相互作用,例如,在亮氨酸-天冬氨酸-缬氨酸基序的辅助作用下,EVs表面纤连蛋白与受体细胞上整合素α4β1相互识别,从而提高EVs摄取与递送效率[18]。 

2 肿瘤细胞来源的细胞外囊泡在乳腺癌转移中的作用

       肿瘤细胞来源的细胞外囊泡,即乳腺癌细胞自身分泌的EVs(BC-EVs),在乳腺癌转移中发挥重要作用。

2.1 细胞外囊泡诱导的上皮-间质转化

       上皮-间质转化(epithelial-mesenchymal transition,EMT)是癌细胞获得侵袭和转移能力的关键生物学过程。其特征包括上皮细胞的极性与细胞间紧密连接丧失,转而呈现间充质表型并获得癌症干细胞能力。miR-181a-5p是BC-EVs中具有代表性的miRNA分子,但其在EMT调控中的作用仍存在争议。miR-181a-5p在乳腺癌患者血清及EVs中显著高表达,并与肿瘤进展正相关[19]。其可导致PTEN/AKT通路失调,促进EMT的发生[20]。但更早的研究报道,乳腺癌组织及患者样本中miR-181a-5p水平下调,miR-181a-5p与基质金属蛋白酶14表达水平呈负相关,后者通过阻断基质金属蛋白酶2激活限制EMT进程[21-22]。不同研究结果的差异可能与肿瘤亚型有关,后者聚焦于三阴性乳腺癌(triple negative breast cancer,TNBC),现有证据提示miR-181a-5p可作为EMT的潜在调控因子,值得在特定亚型背景下进一步验证,此外,这一争论为临床转化提供了参考,若将miR-181a-5p作为乳腺癌转移风险标志物与治疗靶点,需基于分子亚型进行分层评估,针对不同亚型制定差异化的检测阈值或干预策略。

2.2 细胞外囊泡介导的代谢重编程

       代谢重编程(metabolic reprogramming)是癌症的重要标志之一,BC-EVs通过调整不同细胞的代谢途径来满足癌细胞快速生长和远处转移的需要,并在能量供给和代谢物利用方面为转移灶的形成提供支持。
       2.2.1 糖酵解途径 高侵袭性的乳腺癌细胞主要依靠糖酵解供能,在有氧条件下,癌细胞优先将葡萄糖分解成乳酸,这一过程称为Warburg效应[23]。乳酸的过量积聚导致肿瘤微环境酸化,进而抑制免疫细胞功能[24]。乳腺癌患者血清及BC-EVs中circSIPA1L3 高表达,该类EVs能显著增强癌细胞糖酵解能力[25]。另外,TNBC细胞释放的EVs(TNBC-EVs)可携带整合素β4,激活受体细胞线粒体自噬,从而增强肿瘤相关成纤维细胞的糖酵解[26],随后为癌细胞提供额外能量支持。然而,BC-EVs并非始终呈现促进糖酵解的效应。BC-EVs可降低CD8+ T细胞的糖酵解能力,通过消除EVs或者激活AKT-mTOR信号通路,可部分逆转由BC-EVs介导的CD8+ T细胞糖酵解受损,从而抑制免疫逃逸[27]。目前针对糖酵解关键酶(如HK2、PFKFB-3、PKM2)的小分子抑制剂(如2-DG、3-PO、紫草素等)已在临床试验中展现抗肿瘤潜力[28],靶向EVs介导的代谢重编程或可增强这些药物的疗效。
       2.2.2 氨基酸代谢途径 氨基酸代谢在乳腺癌转移中同样发挥重要作用,其代谢紊乱与乳腺癌进展密切相关,例如,支链氨基酸代谢紊乱通过激活mTOR复合体1(mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1,mTORC1)通路促进蛋白合成并加速转移[29]。尽管氨基酸代谢对肿瘤进展影响显著,但关于EVs在其中的作用研究相对有限。Ruan等[30]发现,富集miR-199b-5p的EVs能够削弱星形胶质细胞摄取谷氨酰胺和谷氨酸的能力,使培养基中谷氨酰胺蓄积,这一变化有助于满足癌细胞“谷氨酰胺成瘾”特性。
       2.2.3 脂质代谢途径 脂质既是癌细胞膜合成、能量储备和信号传递的必需成分。BC-EVs通过递送miR-9-5p下调转录因子ATF3,解除其对胆固醇-25-羟化酶的抑制作用,促进25-羟胆固醇生成,进而诱导小鼠肝脏脂质蓄积并促进乳腺癌肝转移[31],乳腺癌细胞释放EVs能干预远处器官的脂质代谢平衡,为肿瘤播散和定植创造有利条件。
        2.2.4 线粒体代谢途径 线粒体是细胞能量代谢中心,其功能紊乱与肿瘤恶病质和转移密切相关。Ruan等[32]发现,BC-EVs通过携带miR-122-5p抑制TP53基因,诱导骨骼肌的线粒体代谢异常,骨骼肌功能受损会极大影响患者预后。

2.3 细胞外囊泡与免疫逃逸和炎症的关系

       肿瘤免疫逃逸(immune escape)是指癌细胞在机体免疫监视下依然生存和扩散的过程。炎症是肿瘤发生和转移的促进因素之一,其可促进多种炎性细胞因子和趋化因子的合成和分泌,促进免疫抑制性微环境的形成、肿瘤血管新生及EMT[33]。BC-EVs通过影响免疫细胞并与炎症协同构建系统性免疫抑制网络,从而促进转移。相关关系见图1。
20260824114231_6894.png
图 1  EVs 诱导炎症并促进免疫逃逸
        注:肺部炎症通过影响乳腺癌肿瘤微环境,调整EVs释放模式和内容物(A),进而促进肺部转移前微环境的构建(C)。乳腺癌来源的EVs携带特异的货载成分通过不同方式作用于免疫细胞促进炎症(B),同时诱导免疫逃逸的发生(D),而炎症又在一定程度上扩大免疫抑制效应。上述过程共同表明,EVs、炎症与免疫逃逸之间关系密切。
       2.3.1 细胞外囊泡介导的免疫逃逸 髓源性抑制细胞(myeloid-derived suppressor cells,MDSCs)的扩增是免疫逃逸的重要机制。BC-EVs富集的巨噬细胞迁移抑制因子(migration inhibitory factor,MIF)可在CD74受体辅助下驱动MDSCs中清道夫受体MARCO上调,偏向性诱导单核型MDSC(M-MDSC)分化,从而对多种免疫细胞产生广泛抑制作用[34]
       此外,DC作为机体最强的抗原呈递细胞,其功能受损会直接阻断免疫应答的启动。在TNBC中,EVs携带的整合素β2(integrin β2,ITGB2)可与DC表面受体结合,导致DC的成熟受阻,最终无法有效激活CD8+ T细胞[35]
       γδ1 T细胞被证明是乳腺癌中主要的调节性T细胞亚群。BC-EVs可富集lncRNA SNHG16,通过竞争性吸附miR-16-5p,解除对SMAD5的抑制,诱导γδ1T向CD73+γδ1 T细胞转化。CD73作为5′-核苷酸酶,可将肿瘤释放的大量ATP/AMP分解为腺苷,后者结合免疫细胞表面的A2A受体,发挥广泛的免疫抑制效应[36]
       另外,多项研究在乳腺癌细胞及患者体液来源的EVs中检测到程序性细胞死亡配体-1(programmed death-ligand 1,PD-L1)分子,这些EV-PD-L1可与CD8+ T细胞表面程序性细胞死亡蛋白-1(programmed cell death protein 1,PD-1)结合,从而抑制CD8+ T细胞的增殖与效应功能,削弱抗肿瘤免疫反应[37]。靶向EV-PD-L1阻断肿瘤对T细胞的抑制,有望为乳腺癌免疫治疗提供全新的干预靶点与联合治疗策略。此外,BC-EVs可转运TGF-βII型受体至CD8+ T细胞,激活SMAD3,并与TCF1协同驱动T细胞耗竭,除此之外,转移性乳腺癌患者血清中该类EVs明显高于非转移患者(P<0.000 1),且与肿瘤负荷和不良预后密切相关,提示携带TGF-βII型受体的EVs对乳腺癌的早期转移具有显著预测价值[38]。然而,活化T细胞可分泌携带PD-1的EVs,这些EV-PD-1能与BC及BC-EVs表面的PD-L1结合并诱导其内吞降解,在一定程度上对抗PD-L1介导的免疫抑制,进一步表明,EVs的来源异质性与免疫功能属性密切相关[39]
       2.3.2 炎症与细胞外囊泡放大免疫逃逸 一方面,持续的应激与炎症可重塑BC-EVs的分泌量及货载成分。慢性应激可促进EVs富集转录因子SP1,激活中性粒细胞中TLR4/NF-κB通路,诱导IL-1β高表达的中性粒细胞聚集[40]。此外,BC-EVs可递送炎症相关分子,放大局部促炎反应并推动免疫失衡。例如,其可富集miR-183-5p,靶向抑制巨噬细胞中PPP2CA,激活NF-κB,上调IL-1β、IL-6和TNF-α等促炎因子[41]。这些作用可与PD-L1、STAT3信号协同构建免疫抑制微环境[42]

2.4 细胞外囊泡促进转移前微环境的形成

       转移前微环境(pre-metastatic niche,PMN)是远处器官在肿瘤细胞到达前即被“改造”的有利于转移细胞生长的环境。EVs参与PMN的塑造,且在不同器官的转移过程中作用各异。深入解析BC-EVs参与PMN重塑的分子机制,有助于理解转移发生的全貌,并为后期干预PMN提供思路。
       在乳腺癌肺转移过程中,LC3阳性的BC-EVs通过其表面特异性HSP60激活肺成纤维细胞,促进后者分泌CCL2,进而介导肺部PMN的构建[43]。BC-EVs表面的整合素α6β4或α6β1通过结合肺上皮基底膜中的胶原或层粘连蛋白,促进非受体酪氨酸激酶(non-receptor tyrosine kinase,Src)磷酸化并上调S100基因,募集骨髓衍生免疫抑制细胞[44]。通过对外周血BC-EVs整合素α6β4或α6β1的检测,有望更早预测肺转移的发生,并可进行术后转移风险的评估。另外,BC-EVs中高表达miR-122-5p,在肺组织中,其可直接抑制靶基因MKP-2,上调单核细胞趋化蛋白-1和基质细胞衍生因子-1的水平,下调纤维结缔蛋白,利于乳腺癌细胞趋化滞留,促进PMN的形成[45]
       在脑转移早期进程中,血脑屏障(blood brain barrier,BBB)的存在成为癌细胞播散与定植的主要障碍。乳腺癌细胞通过高表达微管蛋白酪氨酸连接酶样4,调整EVs的性质和数量,并改变BBB内皮细胞的通透性,进而促进癌细胞黏附。另外,BC-EVs所携带的CEMIP蛋白被证实能重构脑血管微环境,两者共同加速脑PMN建构与后续定植[46]
       相比肺和脑,乳腺癌骨转移更侧重于代谢重塑。BC-EVs可携带lncRNA MIR193BHG,通过与miR-489-3p竞争结合,形成竞争性内源RNA网络,上调DNA甲基转移酶3A表达,促进破骨细胞分化,将骨微环境由稳态拉向高代谢状态,为随后的定植与溶骨进展奠定基础[47]

3 非肿瘤细胞来源的细胞外囊泡在乳腺癌转移中的作用

       除了乳腺癌细胞本身,非肿瘤细胞也会分泌EVs,并对乳腺癌的转移产生重要影响,如免疫细胞、干细胞、基质细胞等。不同非肿瘤细胞来源EVs在乳腺癌转移中的具体作用见表1。

表1 非肿瘤细胞来源的EVs在乳腺癌转移中的作用

来源

货载成分

主要靶点/信号通路

机制

临床转化潜力

引用

肿瘤相关巨噬细胞来源的EVs(3.1)

miR-223-3p

激活PI3K/AKT通路

促进EMT

液体活检诊断标志物;抗EMT治疗靶点

[51]

lncRNA HISLA

抑制PHD2,稳定HIF-1α蛋白

增强糖酵解,诱导恶性表型

化疗增敏靶点及糖酵解干预靶点

[52]

miR-503-3p

抑制DACT2,激活Wnt/β-catenin通路

增强糖酵解,促迁移

早期淋巴转移提示因子及糖酵解干预靶点

[53]

miR-5100(PGRN缺失)

抑制CXCL12/CXCR4轴

抑制EMT

免疫微环境调控靶点及工程化EVs治疗方向

[54]

间充质干细胞来源的EVs(3.2)

ADSC-EVs:NA

上调TOX、CD4和LYZ1基因,下调Mettl7b和Serpinb2基因

促进CD4+T细胞向调节型T细胞分化,调控TAMs向M2型极化,免疫逃逸

免疫治疗靶点

[56]

ADSC-EVs:miR-16-5p

限定于CD90低表达的ADSC

抑制转移

工程化EVs方向

[57]

UCMSC-EVs:NA

胞内miR-21-5p增多,从而下调ZNF367

抑制侵袭和迁移能力

工程化EVs方向

[58]

BMSC-EVs:miR-21-5p

靶向S100A6(促癌)

促进细胞增殖与化疗耐药

防治耐药靶点

[59]

脂肪细胞来源的EVs(3.3)

lncRNA TUG1

吸附miR-34c-5p从而上调RNF38

促进EMT

肥胖型患者干预靶点

[65]

circCRIM1

结合miR-503-5p,从而上调OGA,下调FBP1

发生糖脂代谢重编程,重塑微环境

肥胖型患者干预靶点及代谢标志物

[66]

肿瘤相关成纤维细胞来源的EVs(3.4)

circTBPL1

下调miR-653-5p,从而上调TPBG

促进增殖和迁移

液体活检预后标志物

[69]

miR-500a-5p

结合USP28

促进细胞快速分裂

靶向治疗靶点

[70]

LINC01711

激活miR-4510/NELFE轴

促进糖酵解和迁移能力

糖酵解干预靶点

[71]

miR-92a

下调G3BP2,从而上调TWIST1

促进EMT

抗EMT治疗靶点

[72]

转移前器官来源的EVs(3.5)

肺、脑组织来源的EVs:NA

诱导癌细胞中DHFR的含量增多

促进叶酸代谢(嘌呤/嘧啶合成增多),器官特异性定植倾向

器官特异性转移预测及术前风险评估标志物

[74]

注:总结了非乳腺癌细胞来源的EVs在乳腺癌转移中的作用及具体机制,不同来源的EVs展现出相同或不同的效应。缩略语:EMT:上皮-间质转化;TAMs:肿瘤相关巨噬细胞;ADSC:脂肪来源间充质干细胞;UCMSC:脐带间充质干细胞;BMSC:骨髓间充质干细胞。编号按文内参考文献。

3.1 肿瘤相关巨噬细胞来源的细胞外囊泡

       肿瘤相关巨噬细胞(tumor-associated macrophages,TAMs)是乳腺癌微环境中数量众多且功能可塑性极强的免疫细胞。根据功能和极化状态不同,TAMs可分为抗肿瘤的M1型和促肿瘤的M2型。一方面,BC-EVs能够诱导未极化的巨噬细胞(M0)向M2表型转化。乌头酸酶1(aconitase 1,ACO1)可介导BC-EVs选择性装载miR-148b-3p,从而激活mTORC1信号通路[48]。TNBC-EVs携带miR-182-5p,直接靶向Notch1[49]。此外,BC-EVs中富含的转录因子POU5F1可诱发AKT信号级联反应,上述均可促进M2型TAMs的产生[50]
       另一方面,TAMs分泌的EVs(TAM-derived EVs,TAM-EVs)反馈作用于癌细胞及微环境,进而增强乳腺癌细胞的迁移侵袭能力。M2型TAM-EVs将miR-223-3p递送至乳腺癌细胞后,激活PI3K/AKT通路促进EMT[51]。TAM-EVs可转运lncRNA HISLA,继而抑制脯氨酰羟化酶结构域蛋白2(prolyl hydroxylase domain-containing protein 2,PHD2)、稳定缺氧诱导因子(hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha,HIF-1α),增强乳腺癌糖酵解与存活[52]。此外,携miR-503-3p的TAM-EVs可抑制β-连环蛋白拮抗因子2(dishevelled-binding antagonist of β-catenin 2,DACT2),进而激活Wnt/β-catenin通路,增强糖酵解与迁移能力,临床样本中,miR-503-3p的表达水平与淋巴结转移和肿瘤分期呈正相关(P=0.001;P=0.023,均<0.05)[53],相反,当M2型TAM-EVs缺失PGRN时,miR-5100可被富集至EVs中,该类EVs通过抑制CXCL12/CXCR4轴,降低EMT与迁移能力[54]。总体而言,来源于免疫细胞的EVs在维持免疫平衡或产生抗肿瘤效应方面发挥作用。

3.2 间充质干细胞来源的细胞外囊泡

       间充质干细胞(mesenchymal stem cells,MSCs)在乳腺癌微环境中具有高度可塑性,可与肿瘤细胞及EVs相互作用发挥功能。MSCs表面高表达CD36,介导EVs摄取,使其获取调控分子并参与脂质代谢调控,从而推动TME重塑[55]。关于MSCs来源的EVs对乳腺癌转移的影响,目前研究存在争论,MSCs来源异质性极大可能是其EVs产生抑制或促进转移效应的关键。
       脂肪来源的间充质干细胞(adipose-derived MSCs,ADSCs)释放的EVs在乳腺癌发展中关系复杂,一些研究认为其促进癌细胞迁移和定植,另一些则发现其具有促癌细胞凋亡、抑制肿瘤的作用[56-57],这种差异可能与后者聚焦于CD90低表达亚型有关。脐带的间充质干细胞(umbilical cord MSCs,UCMSCs)来源的EVs多表现出抑制乳腺癌生长和转移的效应。UCMSC-EVs通过上调乳腺癌细胞内miR-21-5p抑制乳腺癌细胞迁移[58]。骨髓的间充质干细胞(bone marrow MSCs,BMSCs)来源的EVs可增强乳腺癌细胞的生长与迁移,机制与其内含有的miR-21-5p有关[59]。但是,将BMSC-EVs预处理以富集miR-16-5p后,可抑制NF-κB通路并逆转上述效应[60]。这提示MSC-EVs对肿瘤的影响取决于其所携带的特定货物成分,通过“工程化装载”可将潜在促癌效应转变为抑癌效应。

3.3 脂肪细胞来源的细胞外囊泡

      肥胖与乳腺癌不良预后相关,脂肪组织通过分泌脂肪因子和细胞因子来影响TME,并与慢性低度炎症、血管生成及免疫失衡密切相关。
       一方面,在乳腺癌TME中,肥胖可使肿瘤相关脂肪细胞(cancer-associated adipocytes,CAAs)处于缺氧与炎症状态,进而诱导细胞外基质(extracellular matrix,ECM)硬化与重塑[61]。随后,癌细胞通过机械感受器(如整合素)“感知”到基质的异常僵硬,触发促增殖和迁移的信号[62]。此外,BC-EVs将miR-1304-3p转移至脂肪细胞,抑制抗脂肪生成因子GATA2的表达,导致细胞中甘油三酯蓄积和脂质代谢紊乱[63]。血清学数据表明,乳腺癌患者血液甘油三酯水平高于健康人群,可能与上述机制有关[64]
       另一方面,脂肪组织释放的EVs参与乳腺癌转移的调控。例如,脂肪组织来源的EVs中高表达lncRNA TUG1,后者结合miR-34c-5p,促进RNF38表达进而激活EMT[65]。类似地,脂肪组织来源的EVs携带的circCRIM1可结合miR-503-5p,从而增强肿瘤细胞的糖代谢和侵袭能力[66]。减轻肥胖状态或阻断脂肪EVs与癌细胞通信,有望成为干预乳腺癌转移的新策略。

3.4 肿瘤相关成纤维细胞来源的细胞外囊泡

       肿瘤相关成纤维细胞(cancer-associated fibroblasts,CAFs)可为癌细胞提供代谢支持并协助微环境重塑。一方面,BC-EVs能够促使正常成纤维细胞获得CAFs表型[67]。在乳腺癌组织中,lncRNA PWRN1通常处于低表达状态,导致BC-EVs富集miR-21-5p,进而下调成纤维细胞中内源性肿瘤抑制基因NF2并抑制Hippo信号通路,最终推动成纤维细胞转化为CAFs。此外,BC-EVs中的miR-185-5p、miR-652-5p、miR-1246等也被报道能促进正常成纤维细胞转化为CAFs[68]
       另一方面,成熟CAFs反向调控肿瘤微环境。CAFs来源的EVs(CAF-EVs)中高表达circTBPL1。后者抑制miR-653-5p,上调滋养层细胞糖蛋白TPBG,从而促进转移进程[69]。此外,CAF-EVs中的miR-500a-5p可与泛素特异性肽酶USP28结合,促进乳腺癌细胞DNA复制失控与分裂加快[70]。此外,CAF-EVs富含LINC01711,经miR-4510/NELFE轴增强乳腺癌细胞糖酵解代谢[71]。CAF-EVs富集并转运miR-92a至乳腺癌细胞,直接靶向抑制G3BP应力颗粒装配因子2(G3BP stress granule assembly factor 2,G3BP2),促进TWIST家族碱性螺旋-环-螺旋转录因子1(twist family bHLH transcription factor 1,TWIST1)释放并核转位,从而诱导EMT[72]。此外,乳腺癌细胞可通过EVs将自身代谢需求“传递”给CAFs,诱导后者合成并分泌谷氨酰胺等营养物质,进而供给TAMs利用[73]。由上可见,抑制肿瘤EVs诱导CAFs的过程或阻断CAF-EVs对肿瘤的支持,可能成为干预乳腺癌转移的新途径。

3.5 转移前器官来源的细胞外囊泡

       前面提到转移前器官在肿瘤细胞尚未到达之前即发生重塑,形成PMN。在转移起始阶段,转移前器官自身释放EVs,参与塑造PMN,并影响器官特异性转移模式[74]。在小鼠模型中,乳腺癌细胞摄取特异器官组织(肺、脑)来源的EVs后,增殖能力显著增强,在体内更易发生该器官(肺、脑)定向转移。两类EVs被摄取后均可诱导癌细胞内二氢叶酸还原酶(dihydrofolate reductase,DHFR)上调,激活受体细胞叶酸代谢通路,增加嘌呤和嘧啶的合成,为癌细胞快速生长提供物质基础。但具体货载成分尚缺乏实验验证。
       在肺转移灶形成过程中,局部微环境中谷胱甘肽合成减少、脯氨酸合成增加,进而调控BC-EVs释放模式,使EVs中神经酰胺含量上调,并通过nSMase2途径大量释放,提升肺转移微环境侵袭性[75]。总之,转移是连续持久的动态过程,转移前器官与转移器官深度参与整个转移过程,通过反调控BC-EVs的组成,使EVs更能适应和推动新环境下的肿瘤扩散。具有临床转化前景的核心EVs货载及检测平台,见表2。

表2  具有临床转化前景的核心EVs货载及检测平台

指标

检测样本类型

检测方法/平台

临床试验中的阶段

引用

EVs货载miR-21

血清(EBC,MBC,FU,HD)

NTA、SEM及AFM

临床前试验

[76]

EVs携带Del-1

血浆(BC,HD)

ELISA

临床前试验

[77]

EVs标志物PD-L1、EpCAM和EGFR

血浆(BC,HD)

基于DEP-ELISA的EVs高敏分离分析集成平台

临床前试验

[78]

注:EBC:早期BC;MBC:进展转移性BC;FU:癌症幸存者;HD:健康供体;NTA:纳米颗粒追踪分析;SEM:扫描电子显微镜;AFM:原子力显微镜;Del-1:内皮发育调节基因-1;ELISA:酶联免疫吸附;DEP:介电电泳 

4 小结与展望

       本文综述了不同来源的EVs通过转运特异的货载,在局部及全身范围内调节肿瘤行为。BC-EVs是乳腺癌细胞与肿瘤微环境、非肿瘤细胞以及远处器官之间信号传递的关键媒介,在乳腺癌转移中发挥总调控作用;肿瘤相关巨噬细胞来源的EVs与免疫逃逸密切相关;间充质干细胞的来源异质性是其EVs产生抑制或促进转移效应的重要因素;脂肪细胞来源的EVs重塑肿瘤微环境;肿瘤相关成纤维细胞作为基质细胞为癌细胞提供支持;转移前器官来源的EVs与PMN的构建以及器官特异性转移密切相关;转移灶通过动态调整BC-EVs组分进一步促进转移。
       治疗性EVs已成为防治乳腺癌转移的新方向,利用天然EVs所具有较高的生物安全价值,并通过工程化改造EVs,从而实现精准靶向,逆转肿瘤迁移过程。但目前,EVs在临床转化方面仍面临三大瓶颈:第一,EVs的分离与鉴定仍没有统一标准;第二,在临床上仍无法完成高质量大规模生产;第三,体内递送与靶向存在效率低下短板。这些问题制约其在诊疗中的实际应用。
       为促进EVs临床转化,未来研究应重点关注以下方面:第一,完善并遵循EVs技术标准,EVs的国际共识(如MISEV2023)为建立从分离到功能验证的质量控制标准提供了重要依据[9]。第二,利用液体活检技术,筛选可能从EVs治疗中获益的患者群体。第三,针对乳腺癌转移的关键驱动分子工程化EVs,并推进临床试验。目前,靶向HLA-G的工程化外泌体平台已完成临床前研究,并获FDA批准进入Ⅰ期临床试验,有望为难治性乳腺癌提供新靶向策略[79]。在胰腺癌中,靶向KRASG12D的工程化外泌体人体临床试验,为乳腺癌相关EVs的临床转化提供了新见解[80]。第四,将工程化EVs与免疫检查点抑制剂、靶向治疗或放疗等联合应用,有望突破耐药并提高靶向效率。随着标准化体系的完善、工程化技术的成熟以及更多高质量临床试验的推进,EVs有望为乳腺癌转移的早期诊断和精准防治提供突破性进展。

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